Stonehenge

General Description

Stonehenge is a prehistoric monument located in the southern England county of Wiltshire that evolved in several phases of construction. The earliest phase of the monument dates back to 3100 BC. Stonehenge is considered to be the most famous Neolithic monument; it consists of thirty upright stones (sarsens) in a series of concentric rings around an altar stone in the center. The sarsen stones are each over ten feet tall and weigh 26 tons. There are thirty lintels perched horizontally atop the sarsens. Archaeological evidence supports the theory that Stonehenge served as a burial ground for at least the first 500 years.

Architectural Design

Stonehenge's architectural design is considered to be Neolithic monumental style. Stonehenge was built in six stages dating between 3100 BC to about 1600 BC. It was constructed during the transition from the Neolithic Period to the Bronze Age. It essentially is a prehistoric stone circle arranged in post-and-lintel formation.

Harmony with Nature

Stonehenge stands in open, slightly sloping grassland. Recent evidence suggests that the stone rings were used as astronomical observatories. The first phase of the Stonehenge construction, referred to as Period I, was a circular ditch 320 feet in diameter. The circle was constructed to align with the midsummer sunrise, the midwinter sunset, and the most southerly rising and northerly setting of the moon. The actual motions of the Sun and the Moon are reflected in the structure. The number of stones or holes in the ground in the various rings around Stonehenge each represents a certain number of days or years in the cycles. It is believed that the design of Stonehenge was used to predict the agricultural cycle.

Symbolism and Sacred Objects

In the 1700's British antiquarian Dr. William Stukeley, claimed that Stonehenge was built by Druids to worship the serpent. Stukeley called the serpent temple "Dracontia." Some speculate that the serpent symbolism may be related to solar and lunar eclipses. Draco is the Latin word for "serpent" or "dragon" and in astronomy, the length of time for the moon to return to a node is called the draconic month. Since the position of the lunar nodes is the key to eclipses, some believe that "perhaps the mythical serpents of Stonehenge and the legendary dragon that eats the Sun are symbols of the same thing: the invisible presence in time and space that eclipses the Sun and the Moon."

How it is used by Worshippers

Since Stonehenge is prehistoric, the exact purpose of the monument is unknown. There are several theories and many speculations. The first theory is widely accepted and is the belief that Stonehenge served as a sacred site for burial of high-ranking citizens. As previously mentioned, evidence supports the idea that Stonehenge served as burial grounds for the first 500 years. Stonehenge has also been called an observatory for marking significant astronomical events. It is also generally accepted that Stonehenge was constructed as a temple to the sun. Some have speculated that it was a temple made for the worship of ancient earth deities.
In present day, Stonehenge is a place of pilgrimage for neo-druids, and for some following pagan or neo-pagan beliefs. Stonehenge has become increasingly associated with British Druidism, Neopaganism and New Age philosophy. However, current ritual use of Stonehenge is carefully controlled.

Sources

www.stonehenge.co.uk
www.britannia.com/history/h7.html
www.sacred-destinations.com/england/stonehenge
www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonehenge

Museum Visit

Museum Visit
I visited the Kimball Art Museum and chose Gerrit Dou's A Dentist by Candlelight (A Quack Doctor Examining an Old Man) ca. 1660-65.

Art Elements
Line -The frame of the painting is arched at the top. In the painting the archway and the curtains create vertical straight lines and horizontal curved lines.
Shape - There are many circular shapes in the painting. Including the lantern, the fixture hanging from the ceiling, the tray on the table, the basket on the table and the bun in the wife's hair. All of the inorganic circular shapes are in the foreground of the painting.
Space - The painting is two-dimensional and the space is flat. Gerrit Dou creates depth by placing a table with objects on it in the foreground. The table is placed in front of the people in the painting. Dou also creates space by having the background completely black, giving the illusion of a deep room with a vast background. In other words, Dou uses layering of figures and objects.
Light - the source of light in this painting is depicted by the candle being held by the dentist and also by the lantern on the table in the foreground. It is a dark painting with artificial light source. The shadows created by the light are true to life. The shadows are depicted by color; there is a varying degree of brightness in the figures and objects relevant to the light sources.
Color - The dominant color in this painting is black. Other dominant colors are shades of gray and yellow. Dou chose to do this to create a certain mood and effect. The mood is dark. The dentist appears to be incompetent and the man and his wife appear fearful and uncertain. The effect of the dark colors and artificial candlelight add to the sense of uncertainty. Dou utilizes warm colors in the glowing of the candlelight and lantern. He does not use atmospheric perspective.
Texture- the actual texture on the surface is rough but there is an implied smooth texture and no patterns are created through the use of texture.

Art Principles
Balance - Balance in this painting is produced by the sharp contrast between light and dark (chiaroscuro). The painting is asymmetrical. Opposites are utilized by the contrast of light and shadow.
Emphasis - My eye is drawn to two parts of the image. So I assume there are two focal points. The first focal point in the image is the candle being held by the dentist, which illuminates the close faces of the dentist and the man being examined by the dentist. The candle also illuminates the concerned lady (presumably the man's wife). The lady is also illuminated by the lantern. The lantern and lady serve as the other focal point. My eye is drawn to the wife holding the hands of the dental patient.
Rhythm - The rhythm created by repetition in this painting is depicted by the repetition of busy hands. The three characters in this painting all have their hands occupied. The dentist is holding the candle in one hand and holding his patients head steady with his other hand. The patient is holding his hat in one hand and holding his wife's hand with his other hand. The wife is holding her husband's hand with one hand and has her other hand across her chest signifying her concern for her husband. The repetition of limbs is also seen in the crocodile or alligator that is hanging from the ceiling. As the creature hands there, its limbs dangle above the figures of the three people. The rhythm is subtle but creates an intensity showing the situation, which is a man obviously in need of dental work but being in the hands of someone incompetent.
Another repeated element in the painting is loose fabric. Dou painted the attire of the characters to include garments with many layers and very loosely fitting. The drapes are also bunched with a lot of loose fabric. And there is a bunched up garment, maybe a towel, sitting on the table.

Media and Technique
The painting is a two-dimensional piece of art. It is an oil on oak panel painting. Meaning, the medium is oil paint on an oak wood panel. Since oil paint dries by oxidation, not evaporation, it remains wet for days, even weeks. This enables the artist to change the color, texture or form as he or she goes along. This also means that the colors are typically applied in thin glazes. Wood panels were used as a medium for painting before canvas become the popular choice. The panels provided solid support that allowed for great precision. Oil on wood required a painstaking multi-layered technique where the painting, or a particular part of it, had to be left for a couple of days for one layer to dry before the next was applied. Preservation of panel paintings presented challenges. The wood panels often warp and crack with age especially if kept with too little humidity.

Profile of a Sacred Space.- Jorge Fernando Delius

The Great Pyramids

The Pyramids of Egypt are all vestiges bequeathed to us by the Egyptians of antiquity, the most prodigious and famous monuments of this civilization and in particular the three great pyramids of Giza that were the tombs or cenotaphs of the pharaohs Khufu, Khafre and Micerino.This construction dates back, according to great majority of scholars, to the period known as the Old Kingdom of Egypt. The Great Pyramid of Giza, built by Cheops (Khufu) is one of the Seven Wonders of the World.

Architectural Design

Before the Pyramids

The mastaba, almost prismatic construction, was the burial of the kings of the Archaic period in Egypt. The reasons for the evolution of the pyramids from the mastabas are not well known but we supposed that was the desire to reach significant heights to express the importance and power of the deceased pharaoh. These constructions despite its imperfection became the basis for the consolidation of new criteria for pyramids that would arise over time.

The pyramids were part of a funerary complex emerging as big monumental buildings at the time of Djoser (Zoser) pharaoh of the III Dynasty and arising during the Middle Kingdom. It was erected with mud bricks and stone cladding. Latest pyramids, although smaller and slimmer, was built during the dynasty XXV, Kush and are found in the necropolis of Meroe and Napata.

Funerary complexes usually consist of:

-The pyramid, key symbolic component of the whole, with the actual burial chamber inside which was reached by a passage from the north face.
-The secondary pyramids, used for burial of the pharaoh's wives or as funerary monuments.
-The high temple, located near the east side of the pyramid, which served to perpetuate the memory of the pharaoh.
-The valley temple on the banks of the Nile, or a channel with a pier.
The processional causeway, which connected the temple to the valley high, decorated with bas-reliefs.
-The solar boats, buried in pits, so that the pharaoh could sail through the sky to meet the god Ra.
-The walled enclosure surrounding the pyramid and part of the package.

Harmony with nature

The royal tomb should be located west of the Nile, site of the sunset, and above the river level to avoid periodic flooding affecting the monument.They made sure that all four sides of the monument were oriented towards the four cardinal points. The Nile River was a key success factor for the construction of the pyramids and for the civilization. The location was strategically selected for the purpose.

Symbolism and Sacred Objects

The construction of a building carries a symbolism. Thus, in any society religious buildings are not designed only for the performance of rites, but also to act as centers cohesive, well-urbanism, community life ... The pyramids symbolize eternal life and continue regeneration. Similarly, in hieroglyphic the term to refer to the pyramids is mer (stairs), possibly referring to the desire to serve as the access to heaven.

The pyramids of Giza have had a special religious significance. They were thus fitting final resting places for the Pharaoh's soul—or souls, as the ancient Egyptians believed that each person had two souls: a ka and a ba.

The interior of the Great Pyramid has two such chambers, the King's Chamber, which is reached by a steep gallery, and the Queen's Chamber, some distance below it. Both chambers are now completely empty, and have been for several millennia. However, the King's Chamber, which is located close to the center of the pyramid, has long been considered to possess extraordinary spiritual power.

The Great Pyramid is thus by any measure an extremely sacred place.

How it is used by Worshippers

The pyramids were a function not only for funeral home, but also of religion, a temple dedicated to the memory of a Pharaoh that during the Old Kingdom was regarded as a god and where he could continue to protect the whole of society from the chaos and also the dangers of Life in the Nile Valley.

SOURCES

1)http://science.jrank.org/pages/11188/Sacred-Places-Great- Pyramid.html#ixzz0kXQ64iFE.

2) www.unmuseum.org/kpyramid.htm

3) www.gizapyramid.com/ : Great Pyramid of Giza Research Association

4) Book: R. O. Faulkner. The Ancient Egyptians Pyramid Texts.1993

Profile of a Sacred Place: Ziggurat of Ur

Profile of a Sacred Place: Ziggurat of Ur

Ziggurat of Ur

There are many sacred monuments in this world that posses hundreds of personal and historical meanings. One of those historical landmarks being The Ziggurat of Ur. The Ziggurat of Ur was dedicated to the moon god Nanna (Akkadian Suen or Sîn), and is located in the city of Ur near Iraq. It was erected by the Sumerians of the city of Ur to honor their deity from among the Sumerian pantheon of gods. Its erection helped rebuild the economy in the 21st century during hard times. Ziggurat of Ur is one of the oldest sacred artificial mountains known. Archaeologist assumed it was a temple because of the burnt fish remains they found to be left as offerings. The temple was rebuilt on the burnt fish remains. Therefore making the platform grow in size. The temple has the form of a step pyramid with receding stories/levels. Each ziggurat was a part of a temple complex that was included with other buildings. They were built in receding tiers on a rectangular, oval, or square platform. The Ziggurat platform was a pyramidal structure but instead of a pointed top it consists of a flat one. The core was made up of sun-baked bricks with facings on each side. The faces were made up of many colors and consist of many different astrological significances. Sometimes kings would have their names engraved on the bricks to show their rein. The number of tiers in each ziggurat ranged from two to seven. The four corners of the Ziggurat point toward the four points of the compass that in turn reflect the movement of the sun. Even though there is no archaeological evidence there was textual evidence recorded that they had shrines at the top of each. Access to these so called shrines would have been by a series of ramps on one side of the ziggurat or by a spiral ramp from base to summit. “The Mesopotamian ziggurats were not places for public worship or ceremonies. They were believed to be dwelling places for the gods and each city had its own patron god.” With them being places for the god’s. Only priests were permitted on the ziggurat or in the rooms at its base, and it was their responsibility to care for the gods and attend to their needs.

Sources

Internet, Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziggurat_of_Ur

Book: Margaret Lazzari, Dona Schlesier, Exploring Art

Profile of a Sacred Space: Parthenon and the Acropolis

Profile of a Sacred Space: Parthenon and the Acropolis

GENERAL DESCRIPTION

The Parthenon is an ancient Greek temple, originally dedicated to the goddess Athena. It sits atop the Athenian acropolis, which is itself a famous site containing multiple buildings, mostly religious in nature. Time and war have left the majority of the buildings on the Acropolis, including the Parthenon, in ruins. The current Parthenon was completed in 438 BC under the direction of Pheidias, and symbolized the Greeks’ victory over the Persians, who had destroyed the Old Parthenon. The structure is elaborately decorated, and various sculptures (particularly friezes) depict the warriors, gods, and heroes of Athens.

ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN

The most prominent feature of the Parthenon is its colonnade of massive columns (these include Ionic, Doric, and Corinthian types). Forty-six columns in a rectangular shape make up the outermost “wall” of the Parthenon, while an additional thirty-nine lie deeper within the structure. Measured at its base, the Parthenon is 228 ft. by 101.4 ft with most columns standing at around 34 ft high. A large room along the east pediment housed the cult statue of Athena Parthenos, while a smaller room along the west pediment functioned as a treasury. These two rooms together formed the naos (inner chamber) of the Parthenon. Sculptures or reliefs are displayed throughout the pediments, walls, and edges of the building.

HARMONY WITH NATURE

Thanks to its tall, spaced columns, the Parthenon invites sunlight. It also sits atop an acropolis, which is by nature higher ground, allowing the structure to “oversee” its natural surroundings. Its numerous mythological depictions also pointed towards a unity with nature: centaurs (half-horse, half-man) on the south side, an olive tree and the god of the sea on the west side, and a serpent alongside the statue that once stood in the interior were all considered significant to the people of Athens, and in some cases, directly connected with the city’s very founding.

SYMBOLISM AND SACRED OBJECTS

Numerous symbolic myths are represented on or in the structure of the Parthenon. The most iconic and sacred object within the Parthenon was the statue of Athena Parthenos, which has unfortunately been completely lost or destroyed. In her right hand, the statue of Athens’ patron goddess held a figure of Nike, who symbolized victory. By extension, then, the statue symbolized Athens’ triumph over its enemies. Another notable sculpture is that of the contest between Poseidon and Athena. In their attempts to control Athens, the two gods produced gifts that would be judged by Zeus to determine a victor. Athena created an olive tree, and Poseidon, a salt spring. Zeus judged Athena the victor; thus she gained her role as the city’s patron goddess and the olive tree obtained its perception as a sacred blessing from the gods.

HOW IT IS USED BY WORSHIPPERS

The Parthenon functioned primarily as a monument – a source of pride meant for aesthetic appreciation and didactic recounting of significant myths and histories. The structure (through its sculptures) exalted the city, its people, and the gods – particularly Athena. Another likely function is that of treasury, since the smaller of the Parthenon’s two interior rooms housed funds of some kind. Also worth noting is that later in its history, the Parthenon was used as both a Christian church and an Islamic mosque.

SOURCES

Internet:

Ancient-Greece.org. 7 April 2010 http://academic.reed.edu/humanities/110Tech/

Parthenon.html

Wikipedia.org. 7 April 2010 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acropolis_of_Athens

Wikipedia.org. 7 April 2010 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthenon

Book:

Morford, Mark, and Robert Lenardon. Classical Mythology.7^th ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003.